Colored Glass Chemistry How Does It Work

Early glass derived its color from impurities that were present when the glass was formed. For example, black bottle glass was a dark brown or green glass, first produced in 17th Century England. This glass was dark due to the effects of the iron impurities in the sand used to make the glass and the sulfur from the smoke of the burning coal used to melt the glass. Man-made Glass Coloration In addition to natural impurities, glass is colored by purposely introducing minerals or purified metal salts (pigments). Examples of popular colored glasses include ruby glass (invented in 1679, using gold chloride) and uranium glass (invented in the 1830s, glass that glows in the dark, made using uranium oxide). Sometimes it is necessary to remove unwanted color caused by impurities to make clear glass or to prepare it for coloring. Decolorizers are used to precipitate out iron and ​sulfur compounds. Manganese dioxide and cerium oxide are common decolorizers. Special Effects Many special effects can be applied to glass to affect its color and overall appearance. Iridescent glass, sometimes called iris glass, is made by adding metallic compounds to the glass or by spraying the surface with stannous chloride or lead chloride and reheating it in a reducing atmosphere. Ancient glasses appear iridescent from the reflection of light off of many layers of weathering. Dichroic glass is an iridescent effect in which the glass appears to be different colors, depending on the angle from which it is viewed. This effect is caused by applying very thin layers of colloidal metals (e.g., gold or silver) to the glass. The thin layers are usually coated with clear glass to protect them from wear or oxidation. Glass Pigments Compounds Colors iron oxides greens, browns manganese oxides deep amber, amethyst, decolorizer cobalt oxide deep blue gold chloride ruby red selenium compounds reds carbon oxides amber/brown a mix of manganese, cobalt, iron black antimony oxides white uranium oxides yellow-green (glows!) sulfur compounds amber/brown copper compounds light blue, red tin compounds white lead with antimony yellow

HLA Harts Viewpoint Concerning Morality and Law Free Essay Example, 2500 words

Hart was adamant in the belief that democracy cannot be fully realized when the rights of the minority are lawfully violated. This paper examines Hart s viewpoint regarding the legitimacy of a person's freedom is restricted simply because it conflicts with society's collective morality and a discussion on moral obligations that conflict with abeyance and enforcement of an unjust law. In the 1960s, the conservative viewpoint was championed by Lord Patrick Devlin who argued for the use of law to preserve morality and thus society itself. This philosophy recommended punishment for violating society s morals which he ambiguously defined as being that which would disgust a right-minded person. In this case, Arthur s fashion choice, by law, disgusted a so-called right-minded person. Therefore, his act was deemed rebellious and immoral by society. The conservative viewpoint, though credible in its intent, is indefinite as to its parameters. This compels subjective judgments in criminal cases intended to relieve a person of their freedom. This viewpoint further held that criminal prosecution had the ability to alter individual behaviour with little to no regard for differences among cultures. Hart opposed this viewpoint explaining that immorality does not jeopardize society. We will write a custom essay sample on HLA Harts Viewpoint Concerning Morality and Law or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page These two clearly defined ways of thought regarding the making of laws has been the subject of much public and legislative discussion. The understanding of these viewpoints is paramount to society as a whole as controversial topics such as euthanasia, drugs and prostitution continue to be introduced to the revision of the law.

The Prevalence Of Obesity And Obesity - 1196 Words

The prevalence of obesity has increased significantly in populations worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) (2015) estimated that 400 million adults were considered obese worldwide and is projected to double by the year 2015. Traditionally, obesity is associated with high caloric intake and lower levels of physical activity in high income Western countries. However, low and middle income countries are increasingly becoming obese and becoming a major public health concern in regards to quality of life and life expectancy (WHO, 2015). Many serious health conditions in the developed world are associated with obesity, including stroke, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, certain cancers, and cardiovascular†¦show more content†¦Stress and illness diffe by ethnicity/race as differences in exposure to social and environmental stressors, culture strategies for coping with stress, biological vulnerability to stress, and perception of stress as an i llness are all plausible biological components of obesity, although not fully understood (Caprio et al., 2008). Genetic Factors Ethnicity and race may have underlying genetic components that may be associated with the development of obesity as various regions of the human genome suggest harboring genes increase the risk of obesity (Akabas, Lederman, Moore, 2012). Additionally, metabolic comorbidities in obesity may be related to different patterns of fat distribution. For example, African Americans have less visceral and hepatic fat than white and Hispanic individuals (Akabas, Lederman, Moore, 2012; Caprio et al., 2008). Racial and ethnic differences in metabolic rate have found that differences in fat free mass or organ mass have been shown not to contribute to weight gain among certain populations (Caprio et al., 2008). Also, differences in insulin secretion and responses are different among ethnic and racial groups. Hispanic and African Americans have shown to have lower insulin sensitivity compared to Caucasians (Akabas, Lederman, Moore, 2012; Caprio et al., 2008). However, African Americans have higher circulating insulin levels than

Personal Statement For My Future Goals Essay - 2626 Words

This assessment requires me to reflect on past experiences in physical activity and how I have been involved in these activities in the past. And how these experiences varied by the contribution towards my own wellbeing. I will then evaluate this to make strategies for my future lifelong wellbeing in the future what it should look like. Physical activities and experiences that I paraitcaped in as I grew up I mainly found swim sessions, ball rush, golf and cricket as positive experiences as we did them with my family and younger friends which I really enjoyed doing I found rugby to become a negative experience for me. As in rugby my friends had stopped playing, as I was too small and got smashed from the larger players so I participated in other activities. Rugby is a national sport in New Zealand and I have the assumption of being played by large muscular males and most New Zealand children when growing up. Which in my case is not true as I’m more towards the ectomorph body shape which proves the assumption that the bigger mesomorph players tended to be better than I was at the time. A positive of this rugby expericne was that it is a sport that I’ve had not family influences to participate in it as many of the sports I do play have, which can be a positive from this experience. I’ve always enjo yed playing golf as I ve played it all my life since I was little. My dad introduced me to the game and I’ve been playing with him and my older brother ever since I startedShow MoreRelatedPersonal Strategic Plan For A Business Organization1282 Words   |  6 Pageswould be a personal strategic plan for myself in which visualizes me as a business organization, or as You, Inc. 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Biological Characteristics of Life

Question: Understand the Characteristics of life in relation to the human body. Understand the human cell. Understand metabolism in the human cell. Understand enzymes within the human body. Understand transport in and out of cells. Understand Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in the human. Answer: Discuss the biological characteristics of life Basically, there are seven biological characteristics that are required for human body survival that is discussed below. Cellular organization The basic unit of survival is cell where all the activities of life processes take place. The cells are the basic machinery for different living activities and, therefore, cellular organization made by a compilation of these cells is the most important component of the human body (Buchanan, 2010). Reproduction For continuity of survival, the reproduction is required to produce new living organism by the process of sexual reproduction in the human body. Reproduction is the only characteristic that leads to the formation of a new living organism. Metabolism The metabolism process is the collaboration of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell for maintaining life in the body. Basically, metabolism is functioning of cellular components and therefore, no cellular activity is possible without metabolism (Alberts et al. 2013). Homeostasis This is a biological characteristic that is required to maintain the equilibrium in internal atmosphere of the body. This included body temperature, pressure, acidity, alkalinity etc. Heredity Heredity is the transfer of traits from parent to offsprings and it important for continuity of trait from one human generation to another that will lead to evolution and adaptation in human species (Buchanan, 2010). Evolution and adaptation Evolution and adaptation are the important biological characteristics of the human body to survive with the external environment and develop response according to the external environment. Growth and development The biological characteristics of growth and development are important for quality and longevity of human survival (Alberts et al. 2013). Discuss in detail the structure and the functions of a human cell using a diagram Human cell diagram (Diagram attached as separate file) Some peripheral proteins form markers or antigens on the surface of the plasma membrane of some specialised cells, explain in detail their role? Peripheral proteins working as marker or antigen on plasma membrane are actually the proteins extended across the plasma membrane that function as an identifier of the cell. The antibodies of body immune system identify these marker proteins to distinguish body cells or friendly cells from foreign invaders. These marker proteins work as fingerprints of the cell. These proteins also function as antigen for the antibodies of the immune system (Chan and Marshall, 2010). Marker proteins play a major role in organ transplantations where the rejection or acceptance of transplant depends on correct marker protein identification of the cell by the immune system. If the marker proteins of transplanted organs are different from original organ than the body immune system rejects the transplant (Richards et al. 2012). How does the phospholipid bi-layer arrangement of the plasma membrane assist with the movement of substances through the membrane? The phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is a thin flexible layer that consists of different components like lipid bilayer, proteins, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. There are two categories of protein on bilayer that are peripheral and internal proteins. Out of these, the internal protein arrangements on phospholipid bilayer functions to form a channel for the movement of materials through the membrane. These internal proteins form a channel between the lipid bilayer for substance movement (Phillips et al. 2012). Below are micrographs of two cell organelles; identify each organelle, and discuss in detail their interrelationship with each other? A) The provided organelle is Mitochondria that is a double layered organelle found in eukaryotic cells working as the powerhouse of the cell. B) The provided organelle is Golgi apparatus or Golgi body found in eukaryotic cells that function basically for transportation and resides at the intersection of endocytic, lysosomal and secretory pathways. Interrelationship of Mitochondria and Golgi apparatus Mitochondria produces energy in the form of ATP in the cell that energy is further operated by DNA and supplied to different organelles for various cellular processes. The Golgi apparatus uses this energy for processes of endocytosis and exocytosis (Westermann, 2010). Further, Golgi apparatus functions as one part of the transportation machinery for the products of the mitochondria inside the cell. After apoptosis of mitochondria, it undergoes cellular digestion and is transported by membrane surface by Golgi complex (Vasudevan et al. 2010). Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis giving examples? Ribosomes are macromolecular organelles that consist of rRNA and polypeptide chain made up of two basic subunits that are the 40s and 60s in eukaryotic cells. The ribosomes function as protein synthesis factory or workhorses. They are basically involved in the translation process of protein synthesis where mRNA after transcription gets translated to polypeptide chain further forming proteins. Basically, the different codons of mRNA are translated to different amino acids attached to tRNA forming polypeptide chain supported by ribosomes. For example- AUG codon forms methionine, UCU forms serine, CAC forms histamine etc. (Hardesty and Kramer, 2012). The mRNA codon (shine-Dalgarno) required for translation initiation is identified by ribosome where ribosome gets attached to mRNA. For example, the mRNA sequence of AUG is identified by rRNA codon UAC in the 40s unit of ribosomes that gets attached to mRNA (Koren and Torchilin, 2012). Further, ribosome provided a proper biological environment and three different sites for the attachment of mRNA and tRNA molecules. These sites on ribosome are named as A, P and E where A-site is attachment site of aminoacyl-tRNA, p site is for attachment of peptidyl-tRNA and E-site is for free tRNA before it leaves the ribosome. Ribosome also provides structural support and catalyst required for protein synthesis (Gagnon et al. 2012). Discuss the role of lysosomes in `autolysis`? Lysosomes are membrane bound structures or waste disposal system in the cell that contains hydrolytic enzymes that are capable to breakdown all categories of biomolecules including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. In living organism the autolysis is a phenomenon leading to self-digestion or cellular destruction that it initiated by the digestive enzymes released from lysosomes into the cytoplasm. Therefore, lysosomes functions as precursor and supplier for the process of autolysis (Holtzman, 2012). Discuss the transmission of hereditary traits by genes? Every living organism consists nuclear material known, as DNA inside the nucleus that carries hereditary characteristics or traits in the form of nucleotide base pairs sequences knows as genes. Each trait has its specific gene sequence on DNA molecules. The chromosomes inside the nucleus containing DNA get replicated into two identical copies in the process of reproduction. Each chromosome copy carries thousands of genes similar to parent genes that were found in parent chromosome. The two identical copies get separated and get transmitted to offspring from a parent through reproduction. In this manner, gene work as the basic unit that carry hereditary traits from one generation to another generation. These genes work as codes of a specific character that offsprings inherit from their parents (Baginsky et al. 2010). Explain how cells are organised to form other structures in the human body A) Skeletal Muscle Tissue The diagram is skeletal muscle fibres that form skeletal muscle tissue or voluntary muscle in the body. An average male consist 42% skeletal muscle and average female contains 36% skeletal muscle in the body. These muscle tissues are formed by the combination of muscle cells that contains myoblasts formed of myofibrils. The diagram shows various myofibrils combined together with the mitochindrias in between. The main function of muscle fibrils is related to cellular physiology and contraction. The muscle fibrils contain actin and myosin along with various other components that lead to muscle contraction and relaxation forming movement in the body in the presence of nerve impulses and ATP the myosin and actin function to breakdown ATP into ADP and phosphate molecules. The energy released after this process gets stored in myosin that is further utilized in the later movement of the body. These muscle tissues maintain the posture and body position because contraction supports particular position. Further, these tissues also play an important role in the movement of materials inside the body by the signalling process (Pedersen and Febbraio, 2012). B) Connective Tissue- Compact Bone Matrix The diagram is of the compact bone matrix that contains a central canal surrounded by lamellae of calcified matrix further surrounding blood vessels. These concentric circles develop compact bones. The lamellae are growth rings that increase in number with age. These compact bone provides structural support, structure and strength to body. These tissues also function for the protection of cancellous bone containing marrow. Compact bone is almost present in all bones of the body. These tissues also releases hormones to encourage mineralization forming solid bones. Proper balance in blood calcium and other tissues is also supported by compact bone matrix (Herring, 2012). C) Nervous Tissue - Neuron The diagram represents neuron known as nerve cell that can be electrically excited for transmission of information or signals from body to brain or from brain to the body. The neurons are functional unit of nervous system signalling pathway where different sub-structures of neuron perform different functions (Alivisatos et al. 2013). The dendrites transfer information to body cells in the form of electric impulses. Axon works as a conduit for information or signal flow between brain regions. At axon terminal process of synapses occurs where electric impulse releases neurotransmitters (chemicals) that convey information to cells of the body in a form of these chemicals (Finch, 2010). Explain the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism with reference to the human cell Metabolism Metabolism is the word used to for all the chemical reactions occurring inside the living cell to maintain the living state of the cell as well as the organism. Metabolism is basically the chemical transformations that occur inside cells of all living creatures basically involved in the production of energy leading to cellular activities, breakdown of food into proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and elimination of waste from the body. Anabolism and catabolism are two categories of metabolic activity occurring in the human body (DeBerardinis and Thompson, 2012). One of the most common example, of metabolism is when a person intake sugar or any other food component in the body it gets broken down into simpler molecules by chemical reactions that further leads to the formation of energy used for formation of proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc. inside the body. Anabolism This is the constructive part of metabolism where cellular processes lead to the formation of complex molecules. Basically, anabolism is a formation process that involves three steps that are the production of precursors, reaction or activation of precursors to use energy and assembly of activated precursors to form complex molecules. Protein translation is an anabolic process example that occurs in living cell when amino acids combine to form protein in the presence of energy (Alberts et al. 2013). Catabolism Catabolism is destructive cellular reaction where biomolecules are broken down into simpler or smaller molecules with a release of energy that is further utilized in anabolic processes. Basically, it is an energy formation process where complex molecules get destroyed to release energy. Cellular respiration is purely a catabolic process where biomolecules of digestion are further broken down into smaller molecules to release energy in the form of ATP (DeBerardinis and Thompson, 2012). Discuss the importance of enzymes in the human body The diagram represents an enzyme-substrate complex formation at active site region of the enzyme where the specific substrate molecule binds to undergo a chemical reaction. This diagram is basically the Lock Key Model of Emil Fischers based on lock key hypothesis explaining that active site works as a code for a specific substrate in chemical reaction similarly like every lock persist a specific shape code for the single key. This lock and key model clearly explain the enzymatic specificity for a particular substrate that leads to specific reaction. This process explains the basis of the enzymatic identification by its substrate that leads to a specific reaction in all living processes (Vogt and Di Cera, 2012). Explain the movement of substances in and out of the cell through passive and active transport 5.1 Define `Passive` and `Active` transport. Explain in detail how the following substances move through the plasma membrane stating whether it is an active or passive transport process; - oxygen and carbon dioxide, removal of waste in the kidneys, movement of sodium ions into a nerve cell and phagocytosis Active and passive transport are biological processes that involve the movement of substances inside and outside the cellular body. The active process needs chemical energy for transportation whereas passive transport occurs without the use of chemical energy. In passive transport process, the movement occurs on the basis of concentration level where substance moves from the region of their higher concentration to lower concentration (Kotyk, 2012). Oxygen and Carbon-di-oxide Oxygen and Carbon-di-oxide get diffused inside and outside the cell by a process of osmosis trying to maintain concentration gradient. Therefore, it is a passive transportation process as no energy is utilized in transportation. Removal of waste in the kidney Removal of waste from the blood at glomerulus of the nephron in the kidney is a passive transport process that occurs due to diffusion of waste from their higher concentration to lower concentration. Whereas, in reabsorption process in kidney the useful substances like glucose, vitamins etc. are removed by active transportation in the loop of Henle and convoluted region of the kidney. Movement of sodium ions in nerve cell The movement of sodium ions in nerve cells is an active transport process that requires energy in the form of ATP to cross the plasma membrane of nerve cells. Phagocytosis Phagocytosis is the vascular induction of solid particles inside the cell through identification by specific receptors. This process is an energy dependant process for signal activation therefore; it is active transportation (Wilson, 2012). A sailor is lost at sea; he drank sea water and died the next day. When his body was recovered, paramedics said he would have survived if he had not drunk the sea water; explain why the sea water killed him? The human body has a certain limit of capacity to handle the salt concentration. The plasma membranes are semipermeable structures and high concentration of salt in water if enter the cell and blood stream it leads to fatal effect. In this particular case, high salt concentration due to drinking seas water resulted in the death of sailor (Wilson, 2012). Discuss the importance and use of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the human body The sprinter will experience fatigue earlier than marathon because of the insufficient intramuscular ATP concentration. Every individual has the capacity to generate power output in the body. The fall of ATP concentration below 70% leads to fatigue in high-pressure exercises. Marathon usually has a practice of running, therefore, their body develops a potential form of energy whereas sprinter usually does not perform running, therefore, will easily feel fatigue (Buchanan, 2010). References Books Alberts, B., Bray, D., Hopkin, K., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K. and Walter, P., 2013.Essential cell biology. Garland Science. Buchanan, M., 2010.Networks in cell biology. Cambridge University Press. Finch, C.E., 2010.The Biology of Human Longevity: Inflammation, Nutrition, and Aging in the Evolution of Lifespans. Academic Press. Hardesty, B. and Kramer, G. 2012.Structure, function, and genetics of ribosomes. Springer Science Business Media. Holtzman, E., 2012.Lysosomes: a survey. Springer Science Business Media. Kotyk, A., 2012.Cell membrane transport: principles and techniques. Springer Science Business Media. Phillips, R., Kondev, J., Theriot, J. and Garcia, H., 2012.Physical biology of the cell. Garland Science. Vasudevan, D.M., Sreekumari, S. and Vaidyanathan, K., 2010.Textbook of biochemistry for medical students. Jaypee Brothers publishers. Wilson, E.O., 2012.On human nature. Harvard University Press. Journals Alivisatos, A.P., Chun, M., Church, G.M., Deisseroth, K., Donoghue, J.P., Greenspan, R.J., McEuen, P.L., Roukes, M.L., Sejnowski, T.J., Weiss, P.S. and Yuste, R., 2013. The brain activity map.Science (New York, NY),339(6125), p.1284. Baginsky, S., Hennig, L., Zimmermann, P. and Gruissem, W., 2010. Gene expression analysis, proteomics, and network discovery.Plant physiology,152(2), pp.402-410. Chan, Y.H.M. and Marshall, W.F., 2010. Scaling properties of cell and organelle size.Organogenesis,6(2), pp.88-96. DeBerardinis, R.J. and Thompson, C.B., 2012. Cellular metabolism and disease: what do metabolic outliers teach us?.Cell,148(6), pp.1132-1144. Gagnon, M.G., Seetharaman, S.V., Bulkley, D. and Steitz, T.A., 2012. Structural basis for the rescue of stalled ribosomes: structure of YaeJ bound to the ribosome.Science,335(6074), pp.1370-1372. Herring, G.M., 2012. The organic matrix of bone.The biochemistry and physiology of bone,1, pp.127-189. Koren, E. and Torchilin, V.P., 2012. Cell-penetrating peptides: breaking through to the other side.Trends in molecular medicine,18(7), pp.385-393. Pedersen, B.K. and Febbraio, M.A., 2012. Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ.Nature Reviews Endocrinology,8(8), pp.457-465. Richards, T.J., Kaminski, N., Baribaud, F., Flavin, S., Brodmerkel, C., Horowitz, D., Li, K., Choi, J., Vuga, L.J., Lindell, K.O. and Klesen, M., 2012. Peripheral blood proteins predict mortality in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine,185(1), pp.67-76. Vogt, A.D. and Di Cera, E., 2012. Conformational selection or induced fit? A critical appraisal of the kinetic mechanism.Biochemistry,51(30), pp.5894-5902. Westermann, B., 2010. Mitochondrial fusion and fission in cell life and death. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology,11(12), pp.872-884.

Broken Window Theory free essay sample

When comparing the two most common methods of contemporary police department strategies, community policing and the broken windows theory, it is easier to show their differences rather than their similarities. The most obvious difference being that broken windows deals with conditions not people, whereas community policing depends strongly on the citizens to be an effective tool. The broken windows theory states that it is easier to solve a small problem before it becomes a big problem. Consider a building with a few broken windows. If the windows are not repaired, the tendency is for vandals to break a few more windows. Eventually, they may even break into the building†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (George L. Kelling). The second part of the theory is that by repairing the broken window, further petty crime will be deterred thus as a result a major crime will be prevented. The claim that this theory actually prevents major crimes is what has been criticized the most harshly. University of Chicago law professor Bernard Harcourt is among those and states â€Å"There’s no good evidence that disorder causes crime [or] that broken windows policing reduces serious crime in a neighborhood† (Boston Globe 2/19/06). Harcourt feels it was the crack epidemic of the 80’s and 90’s that influenced the rise and fall of crime rates. Because of the tremendous amount of money being made in the beginning of the crack surge, it was worth the fight for turf resulting in higher crime, but as it became more available dealers thought twice about the risk for less profit. Other criticisms of the theory involve everything from the legalization of abortion in the 70’s (the feeling being with less unwanted males in society there were fewer potential criminals in the 80’s and 90’s) to simply stating â€Å"Newton’s Law of Crime: what goes up must come down† (Boston Globe 2/19/06). Community policing on the other hand, focuses on crime and social disorder by implementing police services that include traditional law enforcement, mixed with community engagement, problem solving, and partnerships within the community. Community policing requires police and citizens to join together as partners in the course of recognizing, reporting, and effectively solving these issues. Along with community policing is the concept of community court, which can take on several forms but all strive to create relationships between the justice system and the citizens, merchants, schools, and church groups within that community. These are ways to address local problems on a smaller scale. Started in New York City with ne such court in 1993, there are now over 30 in operation across the country. Deputy Inspector Michael Kemper is the commanding officer of the NYPD’s 76th precinct which was recently ranked #1 in crime reduction over the last two years. The community in which the 76th is housed is one of three precincts served by the Red Hook Community Justice Center, a so called â€Å"community court†. According to him, the community court and better community policing are the main reasons for the reductio n of crime. â€Å"I break it down into three factors. First and foremost, the police officers and the supervisors assigned to this precinct are working harder and smarter than ever before. Technological advances have led to computerized systems being placed in precincts throughout the city, and now police officers can track crimes being committed almost immediately. As a result of this, resources can be moved and shifted in order to address any crime trends observed. The precinct is also assisted by outside units such as Patrol Borough Brooklyn South, the Narcotics Bureau, and the Vice Enforcement Unit. Second, I believe in building a good solid working relationship with community members, the people who reside or work here. It’s very important that the community we serve trusts us and that we work together as a team. And we often rely on community members to supply us with information and point us in the right directions to improve their communities, whether their issues are more serious criminal problems or â€Å"quality-of-life† complaints. Third, I believe that the Red Hook Community Justice Center has contributed significantly to our success. The relationship we have with them is instrumental and I look forward to working with them in the future† (courtinnovation. com). Similarities are seen in that both methods include the citizens and a desire to clean up that community. If a petty crime, to be addressed by a broken windows type police department, is reported by a community member, then it takes on a community policing feel when the officers respond and it is to the satisfaction of the citizens. They are both pro-active and crime prevention oriented methods, it’s just one hears more of a voice from the people they are protecting. It makes sense that the two methods are frequently conflated within a department. As stated above both act as a vehicle to clean up the streets of a community. Broken windows does so before the community is affected, community policing takes place as the community is already being affected. It would seem appropriate that the wo mesh and all concerns involving the community are addressed. The major factors in maintaining these safe communities are obviously the police, the citizens, and the politicians. Former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani was a huge proponent of the broken windows theory and changed the entire landscape of Manhattan by ridding the streets of homeless and â€Å"squeegee men† with the understanding that by eliminating these individuals it eliminates petty crime, therefore deterring major crime. Another one of Mayor Giuliani’s initiatives was the implementation of CompStat , a strategic control system designed for the collection and feedback of information on crime and related quality of life issues. This program is easily defined as a means to collect, analyze, and map crime data and other essential police performance measures on a regular basis, and hold police managers accountable for their performance as measured by these data (The CompStat Process, 2003). In this 2003 interview with the Academy of Achievement in Washington D. C. Giuliani explains how these programs effectively reduced crime in New York City: â€Å"The drastic cut in crime in New York City which continued after crime started going up in other cities has to do with two principal things and then a lot of other things. One is the Broken Windows theory. Youve got to pay attention to everything, and you cant give criminals a sense of immunity. The second is the COMSTAT program, the computer program that measures crime every single day in every single part of the city, pin-maps it, plots it, and gives you real hard data on which you can make decisions about your law enforcement strategies. So every day, you can look at where crime is going up, where crime is going down, and assign your police not based on some kind of a hunch or guess, but based on the fact that crime is going up in this part of the city, and this is where we have to put our police officers, and these are the kinds of police officers that we need to do it, because you need different kinds of police officers based on different kinds of crimes. In one part of the city, you can have auto theft going up. You need a certain kind of policing and a certain kind of police officer to reduce that. In another part of the city, you could have thefts of office buildings. You need a different kind of police officer, you need a different kind of policing, and you need the help of the security people in the buildings. But by having these accurate statistics and keeping after them very intensely, you get to see these trends right away, and then you can take action to stop it before it gets out of control. † However, it remains to be seen if these improvements will have lasting affect. In her 6/29/08 article in the New York Post, Julia Vitullo-Martin claims NYC is on a trend that appears to be reverting back to the crime ridden era of the early 1980’s. Some of her evidence gathered shows there has been an 81. % increase of complaints regarding graffiti from 2006 to 2007. In that same period graffiti related arrests spiked 28%. There have been double digit increases in the homeless count this year alone. Violent crimes and murders are on the rise as well with a murder rate up 8% from this time last year, a 6. 2% increase in rapes, and a 4. 4% increase in robberies. However, overall crime is down 3% with declines in assault, grand larceny, burglary and other categories. Another major factor in these percentage increases is the fact that the number of NYPD officers is down to the lowest amount since 1992. The current number (as of May) of 35,700 officers is down from 40,800 in just 2001. In 1991 there were a miniscule 31,000 police officers on the streets. Jeremy Travis, the president of John Jay College of Criminal Justice says â€Å"You can’t cut the police force by 5,000 officers and expect to have the same level of public safety as you had before. We came to recognize that as a city in 1990, and we’ve been the beneficiaries ever since† (NY Post 6/29/08). The appearance of lawlessness, graffiti, homeless, abandoned vehicles and buildings, etc, is also something the community must want to have eradicated for any policing to be effective. If no one that lives there cares then why would the police? Police culture varies from city to city and state to state, but the common theme is to protect and serve. When a community reaches out and wants to take a stand against criminal behavior, the police are more inclined to make every effort and resource available to do so. Maybe it’s actually a point for broken windows that the neighborhoods that are taken care of tend to be policed better than the neighborhoods where it appears too late. As far as why a police officer would gravitate towards broken windows is more a testament to the times than anything else. There are less, if any at all, real communities left, therefore, the community policeman, or beat cop, is long gone. It wasn’t long ago that neighborhoods were clearly defined, generally by class but specifically by ethnicity. The officers patrolling these areas knew the idiosyncrasies within the culturally diverse communities. An officer could become specialized in how to deal with people in the community even if they are from completely different backgrounds, religions, etc. There was a connection in these neighborhoods, not only with the police and the public, but the neighbors themselves. People knew each other, people looked out for one another, people would be invested in other’s well being if not only because they were friends, but for the greater good of the community. A good point was made in class where we don’t even know our neighbors anymore, how can we expect a police officer to know the people in the area he or she patrols? Very rarely are officers even out of their patrol car anymore, so the idea of â€Å"community policing† is probably not very appealing to them. More prevalent now without the strict housing restrictions placed on officers to live where they work from decades ago. The consequence of this becomes the detachment of that relationship between police and the citizens. An â€Å"us vs. them† mentality is formed and a deterioration of the communication needed between those two entities can ultimately lead to the surging crime rates of the past and eventual devastation of the community from the inside out. It is here that a strong argument can made that a meshing of the two methods is needed in order to protect the quality of life all citizens are entitled and maintain a strict sense of order, even among the so called â€Å"petty crimes†, so that larger offenses are avoided.